HUNGARIAN LANGUAGE

                     HUNGARIAN LANGUAGE

Hungarian  is a Finno-Ugric language spoken in Hungary and several neighbouring countries. It is the official language of Hungary and one of the 24 official languages of the European Union. Outside Hungary it is also spoken by communities of Hungarians in the countries that today make up Slovakia, western Ukraine , central and western Romania, northern Serbia , northern Croatia, and northern Slovenia . It is also spoken by Hungarian diaspora communities worldwide, especially in b (particularly the united states and Canada) and in Israel. Like Finnish and Estonian, Hungarian belongs to the Uralic language family.

Hungarian is a member of the Uralic language family. Linguistic connections between Hungarian and other Uralic languages were noticed in the 1670s, and the family itself (then called Finno-Ugric) was established in 1717, but the classification of Hungarian as a Uralic/Finno-Ugric rather than Turkic language continued to be a matter of impassioned political controversy throughout the 18th and into the 19th centuries. Hungarian has traditionally been assigned to the Ugric branch within Uralic/Finno-Ugric, along with the Mansi and Khanty languages of western Siberia , but it is no longer clear that it is a valid group. When the Samoyed languages were determined to be part of the family, it was thought at first that Finnic and Ugric (Finno-Ugric) were closer to each other than to the Samoyed branch of the family, but that now is frequently questioned.

The first written accounts of Hungarian, mostly personal name and place names, date to the 10th century. No significant texts written in Old Hungarian script have survived, as wood, the medium of writing in use at the time, was perishable.

The Kingdom of Hungary was founded in 1000 by Stephen I. The country became a Western-styled Christian (Roman Catholic) state, with Latin script replacing Hungarian runes. The earliest remaining fragments of the language are found in the establishing charter of the abbey of Tihany from 1055, intermingled with Latin text. The first extant text fully written in Hungarian is the Funeral Sermon and Prayer, which dates to the 1190s. Although the orthography of these early texts differed considerably from that used today, contemporary Hungarians can still understand a great deal of the reconstructed spoken language, despite changes in grammar and vocabulary.

                                             

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Korean language

The Korean language (South Korean: 한국어/韓國語 Hangugeo; North Korean: 조선말/朝鮮말 Chosŏnmal) is an East Asian language spoken by about 80 million people.

I

t is a member of the Koreanic language family and is the official and national language of both Koreas: North Korea and South Korea, with different standardized official forms used in each territory. It is also one of the two official languages in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and Changbai Korean Autonomous County of Jilin province, China. 

The Korean language uses two different writing systems. The first is Hangul, the main alphabet. In North Korea, only Hangeul (Known as Choseongeul in North Korea) is used by law. In South Korea, only Hangeul should be used in most public areas like education, but the second system, Hanja, is still used in some newspapers and professional areas. 

The Korean language uses two different writing systems. The first is Hangul, the main alphabet. In North Korea, only Hangeul (Known as Choseongeul in North Korea) is used by law. In South Korea, only Hangeul should be used in most public areas like education, but the second system, Hanja, is still used in some newspapers and professional areas

Gender: 
In general, Korean lacks grammatical gender. As one of the few exceptions, the third-person singular pronoun has two different forms: 그 geu (male) and 그녀 geunyeo (female). Before 그녀 were invented in need of translating 'she' into korean, 그 was the only one third-person singular pronoun, and had no grammatical gender.

The proportion of native Korean vocabulary in the Korean language might be as high as 70%.

Spelling and pronunciation: 
Some words have different spellings and pronunciations in the North and the South. Most of the official languages of North Korea are from the northwest (Pyeongan dialect), and the standard language of South Korea is the standard language (Seoul language close to Gyeonggi- dialect). 

The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul (/ˈhɑːnɡuːl/ HAHN-gool from Korean 한글, Korean pronunciation: [ha(ː)n.ɡɯl]), has been used to write the Korean language since its creation in the 15th century by King Sejong the Great.It may also be written Hangeul following the standard Romanization.

Korean alphabet or
Chosŏn'gŭl
Hangul
Hangeul
Chosŏn'gŭl or Hangeul

Hangul is usually written horizontally, from left to right. When written vertically, the writing system is top to bottom and often right to left, but sometimes top to bottom and left to right.

Korean sign language is official language in South Korea. 

It is the official writing system of North Korea and South Korea. It is a co-official writing system in the Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture and Changbai Korean Autonomous County in Jilin Province, China. It is sometimes used to write the Cia-Cia language spoken near the town of Bau-Bau, Indonesia. 
     
Alphabet: 

The alphabet consists of 14 consonants and 10 vowels. Its letters are grouped into syllabic blocks, vertically and horizontally. For example, the Korean word for "honeybee" (kkulbeol) is written 꿀벌, not ㄲㅜㄹㅂㅓㄹ. A.
   
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Russians language

Russian is the largest native language in Europe and the most geographically widespread language in Eurasia.It is the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages, with 144 million speakers in Russia,Ukraine and Belarus. Russian is the eighth most spoken language in the world by number of native speakers and the seventh by total number of speakers.The language is one of the six official languages of the United Nations.Russian is also the third most widespread language on the Internet after English and German.It is the official language of Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and a recognised regional language in Georgia, Moldova and Ukraine. Russian is also a significant minority language in the Baltic countries and Central Asia, and is still used as a lingua franca in the former Soviet countries.

Pronunciation[ˈruskʲɪj jɪˈzɨk]
Native to Russia, Ukraine, Belarus,Kazakhstan and other neighboring post-Soviet states Native speakers 150 million (2012),10 million (2012) Language family Indo-European Balto-Slavic Slavic
East Slavic Russian Early form Old East Slavic Writing system Cyrillic (Russian alphabet) Russian Braille. Russian belongs to the family of Indo-European languages, one of the four living members of the East Slavic languages, and part of the larger Balto-Slavic  branch. Written examples of Old East Slavonic are attested from the 10th century onward.

The Russian language is the 8th largest in the world by number of speakers, after English, Mandarin, Hindi-Urdu, Spanish, Arabic and Portuges

Russian is written using a Cyrillic alphabet. The Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. The following table gives their upper case forms, along with IPA values for each letter's typical sound:

Older letters of the Russian alphabet include ⟨ѣ⟩, which merged to ⟨е⟩ (/je/ or /ʲe/); ⟨і⟩ and ⟨ѵ⟩, which both merged to ⟨и⟩ (/i/); ⟨ѳ⟩, which merged to ⟨ф⟩ (/f/); ⟨ѫ⟩, which merged to ⟨у⟩ (/u/); ⟨ѭ⟩, which merged to ⟨ю⟩ (/ju/ or /ʲu/); and ⟨ѧ⟩ and ⟨ѩ⟩, which later were graphically reshaped into ⟨я⟩ and merged phonetically to /ja/ or /ʲa/. While these older letters have been abandoned at one time or another, they may be used in this and related articles. 

The Russian Alphabet
Russian is written in the Cyrillic alphabet, whose origin dates from the 9th century. It was created by two Greek missionaries, the brothers Cyril and Methodius, who based it largely on the Greek. The Russian alphabet is not difficult to learn. A number of letters are written and pronounced roughly the same as in English.

While learning the Russian alphabet is not especially difficult, learning to speak Russian is. There are extremely long words and unusual stresses and spellings which would be incorrect in English. There are also 3 genders - masculine, feminine, and neutral.

In spite of these difficulties, an increasing number of students worldwide are learning Russian. Furthermore, if you’re going to live in Russia, learning the language is just about the most important thing you can do to get to know the country, its people and to avoid getting lost. 

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Arabic language

• Arabic language: 
Arabic (Arabic: العَرَبِيَّة‎) al-ʻarabiyyah [alʕaraˈbijːa] or (Arabic: عَرَبِيّ‎) ʻarabī [ˈʕarabiː] or
Arabic pronunciation: [ʕaraˈbij]) is a Central Semitic language that first emerged in Iron Age northwestern Arabia and is now the lingua franca of the Arab world. Arabic is classified as a macrolanguage comprising 30 modern varieties, including its standard form, Modern Standard Arabic,which is derived from Classical Arabic.

  
The Arabic language has been around for well over 1000 years. It is believed to have originated in the Arabian Peninsula. It was first spoken by nomadic tribes in the northwestern frontier of the Peninsula. In fact, Arabic, means “nomadic.” Arabs (aka nomads), from which the word Arabic is derived, primarily occupied the area between Mesopotamia to the east to the Lebanon mountains in the west, to the Sinai in the south, and from northwestern Arabia to the Sinai in the south.Arabic language is one of the mostly common spoken languages. In fact Arabic is the 5th common language in the world. Around 300 million people speak Arabic around the globe. Classical Arabic is the language of the Quran, which is the sacred book of Muslims around the world. 

• Arabic is a Semitic Language:     

  For those interested to learn Arabic language, you need to know that Arabic belongs to the Semitic language family which includes Aramaic and Hebrew. It is the most common spoken Semitic language in fact. Arabic is the official language for the Middle East countries as well as the horn and the north of Africa. Arabic is also one of the oldest spoken language and it carries a great history and civilization behind.

 • There are two Arabic versions :

Arabic language can be divided into two versions Modern Arabic and Classical Arabic. Classical Arabic is the official language and it is the language of the Quran. Classical Arabic does not change and it is the only way for you to learn Arabic language in an academic way. It is used in formal situations. It is also used in newspaper, books, academic researches and study books. As classical Arabic is most used in written context, Modern Arabic is used in the daily spoken contexts.

 • Arabic Alphabet: 

Arabic Alphabet consists of 28 letters. Learning Arabic Alphabet is the first step to learn Arabic language. If you are interested to learn Arabic Writing you need to know some information. Arabic is a language that is written from right to left. Arabic is written in the cursive way. To learn Arabic alphabet and to learn Arabic writing, you need to pay much attention to dots. Dots are used to differentiate a letter from another. A single dot, which may be added by mistake, can make a certain word mean a completely different meaning.

• Arabic Grammar: 

 As Arabic language is considered as a Semitic language, Arabic grammar is similar to other Semitic languages. As for classical Arabic grammar, we find that it is divided into five branches:-

1.) Lexicon: which is concerned with the meaning and the explanation of Arabic Vocabulary

 2.) Morphology: It deals with the form of the words.

 3.) Syntax: It is about inflection; however it is lost in spoken Arabic language between Arabs. However, you have to study it when you learn to speak Arabic in an academic way.

4.) Derivation: It is the study of the origin of the words.

5.) Rhetoric: It is the study of the construction quality of sentences.

• Arabic literature: 

The oldest form of Arabic literature is poetry. Arabic literature has a great old history. The history of Arabic literature goes back to 16 centuries ago. It began in the Arabian Peninsula. If you decide to learn Arabic Language, you will deal with the Arabic literature in a way or another. Arabic literature is very important for those who are interested to learn Arabic language as well as Arabic grammar.

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Yoruba Language

                               Yoruba is a member of the Volta-Niger branch of the Niger-Congo family of languages. It is spoken by about 28 million people in southwest Nigeria, Benin, Togo, the UK, Brazil and the USA. It is one of the four official languages of Nigeria, along with English, Hausa and Igbo. Yoruba is a tonal language with three tones: high, mid and low.The Yoruba people are one of the ethnic groups of South Western Nigeria and Southern Benin in West Africa.The Yorubas are  a distinctive people who are bound together by a common language with various different dialects.They also share a rich history and culture.The Yoruba language offers a substantial amount of unique Yoruba literature, some of which has gained recognition at the international level.As at 2010,records had it that about the number of Yoruba language speakers was put at 30million.Interestingly,many  Yoruba words are used in the Afro-Brazilian region known as Candomble and in many other Afro-American religions in the Americas and the Caribbean.Among all the languages spoken by ethnic group in Nigeria,the Yoruba Language is most closely related to the Igala(spoken in central Nigeria)  and the Itsekiri Language(spoken in Niger Delta).

YORUBA PEOPLE

YORUBA ALPHABETS

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Turkish Language

                            Turkish is a Turkic language spoken mainly in Turkey, Northern Cyprus and Cyprus. In 2017 there were 71 million native speakers of Turkish, and about 17 million second language speakers.The Turkish language is part of the Turkic languages, and was first spoken in Mongolia, before being strongly influenced by Arabic and Persian. Turkish was then reformed in the 20th century.The letters Q , X  and W  are not included in the official Turkish alphabet, but are used in foreign names and loanwords.Turkish is spoken in more than 30 countries where it is not an official language, including Germany with two million Turkish speakers.The earliest forms of the Turkish language were written in Orkhon Script.Philologically Turkish belongs to the so called Altaic languages which still is controversial. The Altaic languages with its origin in the central Asian Altai mountains are divided into  Turkic languages, Mongolian languages,Tungusian languages.Turkish, being an Altaic language, has grammar and vocabulary that is very different from Indo-European languages. Learning Dutch for a Brit or learning Italian for a Romanian is much easier than them learning Turkish. On the other hand, there are similar languages to Turkish such as Mongolian or Kazakh.The country has a fast developing economy, which helps put Turkey in the international business map. As such, learning the Turkish language is more important now, especially for individuals and corporations interested in doing business in Turkey. The Turkish language is the 12th most spoken language in the world.

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Danish Language

                   Danish is a North Germanic language with around 5.5 million speakers mainly in Denmark.Greenland and the Faroe Islands. Danish is the official langauge in Denmark and the Faroe Islands, and is recognised as a minority language in Greenland and Germany. It was the official language of Norway until about 1830, and of Iceland until 1944. Danish is also the first foreign language learnt in Iceland.Danish is clearly the Scandinavian language that has undergone the greatest amount of change away from Old Scandinavian. Though Danish is primarily spoken in Denmark, it’s spoken as a native language by about 20% of the population of Greenland, where it holds official language status.The Danish alphabet is indeed similar to the English alphabet, except for the difference that in the Danish alphabet three letters were added: æ, ø, and å.   Danish is the language spoken in Denmark.Dutch is the language spoken in the Netherlands.As is noted in this article Dutch,Danish have same difference ,both languages are Germanic languages spoken in small, flat countries located in the north-west of Europe, but that's about where the similarities stop.

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Malayalam Language

             Malayalam Language, member of the South Dravidian subgroup of the Dravidian Language family. Malayalam is spoken mainly in India, where it is the official language of the state of Kerala and the union territory of Lakshadweep.It is also spoken by bilingual communities in contiguous parts of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In the early 21st century, Malayalam was spoken by more than 35 million people. Malayalam language has large vocabulary, with around 90,000 words listed in dictionary. It consists of number of words borrowed from Sanskrit and Proto-dravidian language. Arrival of European further enriched the Malayalam vocabulary with large absorbing numerous words and idioms from English, Portuguese, and Dutch etc. Most of the Malayalam words end with ‘am (ansvaram)’. When written in English, this is the only language that turns out to be a palindrome (a word that reads the same backward as forward).It is the 8^th most spoken language in India.The most circulated daily regional newspaper in India is in Malayalam. Kerala alone prints 170 daily papers, 235 weekly and over 550 monthly periodicals.Fourteen districts in Kerala have different dialects and people sometimes find it difficult to understand their own language due to these dialects.Malayalam has borrowed many words from other languages such  as Sanskrit ,Hindi  ,Urudu ,Arabic , Persian, Portuguese, Dutch,French and English. The majority of lexical borrowings come from Sanskrit, Tamil, and Urdu.Modern Malayalam is spoken by an estimated 35 million people around the world today, most of them located in India. India is an immense country that is home to many languages, most of them geographically concentrated in select regions or provinces.The beautiful Malayalam originated from the Classic Pure Tamil and Ancient Kerala was one of the three important Kingdoms of Ancient Tamilakam!

MALAYALAM SCRIPT

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Greek Language

         Greek Language, Indo-European language spoken primarily in Greece. Greek is almost spoken by 13.4 million native speakers. One thing that  is fascinating about the Greek language is that when you look at the Indo-European language chart, Greek stands on it’s own. Nearly every language in that family, whether it is Latin or Germanic, developed into other languages over time. For example, Spanish, French, and Italian, were derived from Latin.Greek is the national language of Greece, where it is spoken by about 10.7 million people, and the co-official language, along with Turkish of Cyprus, where it is spoken by 1.1 million people.The first known script for writing Greek was the syllabary Linear B deciphered in 1953 by Michael Ventris . It was used for writing Mycenaean an early form of Greek.Many modern scientific and technical words in English and other Western languages are derived from Greek. It has been estimated that over 10% of English vocabulary is of Greek origin.Many modern scientific and technical words in English and other Western languages are derived from Greek. With 182 characters when transliterated into English, Lopado­temacho­selacho­galeo­kranio­leipsano­drim­hypo­trimmato­silphio­parao­melito­katakechy­meno­kichl­epi­kossypho­phatto­perister­alektryon­opte­kephallio­kigklo­peleio­lagoio­siraio­baphe­tragano­pterygon is the longest Ancient Greek word. It is a fictional dish and was created by Aristophanes in his comedy assembly women.The word 'alphabet' is actually formed of 'alpha' and 'beta', the two first letters of the Greek alphabet.

GREEK ALPHABETS

ANCIENT GREEK LANGUAGE

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FRENCH LANGUAGE

FRENCH LANGUAGE: 

The French language (French: français, pronounced "Fronce-eh") is a Romance language that was first spoken in France.

It has also been one of the roots of other languages such as the Haitian Creole language.

It is an official or a main second language in 55 countries worldwide, and is reputed to be the foreign language which is most widely used in international communications, after English. Almost 300 million people speak French as their native language or as a second language. 

French is an official language in 29 countries across multiple different continents. French is also the 18th most natively spoken language in the world, 6th most spoken language by total number of speakers and the second most studied language worldwide (with about 120 million current learners).

French speakers will reach approximately 500 million in 2025 and 650 million by 2050.OIF estimates 700 million by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa.

French is written with the 26 letters of the basic Latin script, with four diacritics appearing on vowels (circumflex accent, acute accent, grave accent, diaeresis) and the cedilla appearing in "ç".

There are two ligatures, "œ" and "æ", but they are now often not used because of the layout of the most common keyboards used in French-speaking countries. Yet, they cannot be changed to "oe" and "ae" in formal and literary texts.

French grammar is the set of rules by which the French language creates statements, questions and commands. In many respects, it is quite similar to that of the other Romance languages.

French is a moderately inflected language. Nouns and most pronouns are inflected for number (singular or plural, though in most nouns the plural is pronounced the same as the singular even if spelled differently); adjectives, for number and gender (masculine or feminine) of their nouns; personal pronouns and a few other pronouns, for person, number, gender, and case; and verbs, for tense, aspect, mood, and the person and number of their subjects. Case is primarily marked using word order and prepositions, while certain verb features are marked using auxiliary verbs.

Articles used in french language:

The indefinite articles or “a/an” in English:

un (masculine)

une (feminine)

des (plural)

The definite articles or “the” in English:

le (masculine)

la (feminine)

les (plural)

The partitive articles or “some” in English:

du (masculine)

de la (feminine)

des (plural)

Punctuation used in french language: 

In France, the exclamation mark, question mark, semicolon, colon, percentage mark, currency symbols, hash, and guillemet all require a non-breaking space before and after the punctuation mark. Outside of France, this rule is often ignored. Computer software may aid or hinder the application of this rule, depending on the degree of localisation, as it is marked differently from most other Western punctuation.

                                                     

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MANDARIN CHINESE LANGUAGE

    MANDARIN CHINESE LANGUAGE

Mandari is a group of related varieties of Chinese spoken across most of northern and southwestern China. The group includes the Beijing dialect, the basis of Standard Mandarin or Standard Chinese . Because Mandarin originated in North China and most Mandarin dialects are found in the north, the group is sometimes referred to as the Northern dialects. Many local Mandarin varieties are not mutually intelligible. Nevertheless, Mandarin is often placed first in lists of languages by number of native speakers (with nearly a billion).

Most Mandarin varieties have four tones. The final stops of Middle Chinese have disappeared in most of these varieties, but some have merged them as a final glottal stop. Many Mandarin varieties, including the Beijing dialect, retain retroflex initial consonants, which have been lost in southern dialect groups.

In everyday English, "Mandarin" refers to Standard Chinese, which is often called simply "Chinese". Standard Chinese is based on the particular Mandarin dialect spoken in Beijing, with some lexical and syntactic influence from other Mandarin dialects. It is the official spoken language of the People's Republic of China , the de facto official language of the Republic of China, and one of the four official languages of the Republic of Singapore. It also functions as the language of instruction in Mainland China and in Taiwan. It is one of the six official languages of the United Nations, under the name "Chinese".      

                                        

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JAVANESE LANGUAGE

            JAVANESE LANGUAGE

Javanese  is the language of the javanese people  from the central and eastern parts of the island of java, in Indonesia. There are also pockets of Javanese speakers on the northern coast of western Java. It is the native language of more than 98 million people(more than 42% of the total population of Indonesia).

Javanese is one of the Austronesian languages, but it is not particularly close to other languages and is difficult to classify. Its closest relatives are the neighbouring languages such as Sundanese, Madurese and Balinese. Most speakers of Javanese also speak Indonesian, the standardized form of Malayspoken in Indonesia, for official and commercial purposes as well as a means to communicate with non-Javanese-speaking Indonesians.

There are speakers of Javanese in Malaysia and Singapore. Some people of Javanese descent in Suriname  speak a creole descendant of the language.

The language is spoken in yogyakarta , central , east java and , as well as on the north coast of west java . It is also spoken elsewhere by the Javanese people in other provinces of Indonesia, which are numerous due to the government-sanctioned transmigration program in the late 20th century, including Lampung , Jambi, and North Sumatra provinces.

                                     

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PERSIAN LANGUAGE

                     PERSIAN LANGUAGE

Persian  also known by its endonym farsi is one of the Western Iranian languages within the IndoIranian branch of the Indo-European language family. It is primarily spoken in Iran, Afghanistan  and Tajikistan , Uzbekistan and some other regions which historically were Persianate societies and considered part of Greater Iran. It is written right to left in the Persian alphabet, a modified variant of the Arabic script, which itself evolved from the Aramaic alphabet.

The Persian language is classified as a continuation of Middle Persian, the official religious and literary language of the Sasanian Empire, itself a continuation of Old Persian, the language of the Achaemenid Empire.Its grammar is similar to that of many contemporary European languages.A Persian-speaking person may be referred to as Persophone.

CLASSIFICATION:

Persian is one of the Western Iranian languages within the Indo-European family. Other Western Iranian languages are the Kurdish languages, Gilaki, Mazanderani, Talysh, and Balochi. Persian is classified as a member of the Southwestern subgroup within Western Iranian along with Lari, Kumzari, and Luri.

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VIETNAMESE LANGUAGE

                        VIETNAMESE LANGUAGE

Vietnamese is an Austroasiatic language that originated in vietnam, where it is the national and official language. It is the native language of the vietnamese people, as well as a first or second language for the many ethnic minorities of vietnam. As a result of Vietnamese emigration and cultural influence, Vietnamese speakers are found throughout the world, notably in East and Southeast Asia, North America, Australia and Western Europe. Vietnamese has also been officially recognized as a minority language in the Czeh Republic.

Vietnamese is increasingly being taught in schools and institutions outside of Vietnam. In countries with strongly established Vietnamese-speaking communities such as Australia, Canada, France, and the United States, Vietnamese language education largely serves as a cultural role to link descendants of Vietnamese immigrants to their ancestral culture. Meanwhile, in countries near Vietnam such as Cambodia, Laos, South Korea, and Thailand, the increased role of Vietnamese in foreign language education is largely due to the growth and influence of Vietnam's economy.

TONES:

Each Vietnamese syllable is pronounced with an inherent tone centered on the main vowel or group of vowels. Tones differ in:

• length (duration)
• pitch control (i.e. pitch melody)
• pitch height
• phonation
  

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                                                                                  M.Vishali